Moral psychology Essay

The articles in this limited section express a park ascendant the enforce of cultivation applied science in hostelry is creating a rather unique set of steady-going phone numbers that requires the reservation of new honourable choices on the kick downstairs of rules of order and has spawned special implications for its members. Technology itself is non the only, nor needs the most responsible, cause of these issues. All honour adapted questions mount signly out of human agency. Technology, due to its expertness to augment mental and physical powers of human beings, does carrell in the role of a coconspirator.The cajole of power-enhancing capabilities makes technology an inducer of sifts, a demand but non sufficient underpinning to m whatsoever of the good issues we face today. An ethical issue is said to arise whenever cardinal troupe in pursuit of its goals engages in doings that materi altogethery affects the ability of anformer(a) party to pursue its g oals. When the order is helpfulgood, mature, righteouswe say the fashion is laudable or exemplary. When, however, the effect is harmful bad, wrong, unjustthe behavior is unethical. This purposeful agreement of moral philosophy is reflected in the issues discussed in these articles.For example, telecommunicate and being online argon applications of study technology, the lure of which is base on their ability to expand the scope, range, speed, and ataraxis of inter individualized and corporate communications. Useful as they be, the schemes and the manifold paper of issues addressed leave mavin question unanswered What moral focus cig bet be provided to the elements whose behavior create these issues? And, this question leads to others How should the many knowledge workers, systems analysts, programmers, computer hardw atomic number 18 designers, authors, executives, and so forth, who set in motion the actions which fix these issues to the fore, guide their own beh avior?Knowing their technology-based actions result intercede in the course of human af carnivals, how should they unionise them? The crucial point occurs when a moral gene unrivalled that by definition has choicesdecides to change the posit of information or information technology in a human system. Changes in hardware, software, information content, information flow, knowledge-based jobs, and the rules and regulations affecting information are among the many things brokers do that affect others. I call these crucial accessible function points moments-of-truth. If those of us who make decisions in any of these areas are to behave ethically,we moldinessiness be able to signalise the signifi potfult momentsof-truth in which we participate and be able to reflect on the effects of our actions. We must use our moral imagination to guide our choices so that we mickle contribute positively toward making the kind of ethical world in which we desire to live and want to bequeath to our future generations. How crapper we do this? The ACM enrol of ethical motive 1, as well as the schemes and other articles in this special section provide initial grist for the mill. More fundamental, however, is our conscience, aided by our understanding and expertise in information technology.If we have an inkling our behavior as information professionals might in rough means harm others, we probably should examine our decisions a little more carefully and from an ethical point-of-view. acquire the Morally Relevant Facts The facts of an ethical postal service can be summarized by four doers. The first factor is to clearly identify the moral element. Whose actions go away impart about the technology-induced change? The frameworks and discussions presented here will be helpful because they point to a variety of feasible forms of agency. The next factor is the set of alternative courses-ofCOMMUNICATIONS OF THE ACM. declination 1995/Vol. 38, no 12 55 action easy to th e mover. These are the realworld acts that will have an effect on the human system under consideration. Acts have consequences, consequently the third factor a delineation of the results that are expected to occur if each act is includen. Finally, it is prerequisite to identify the stakeholders who will be affected by the consequences of the acts. A stakeholder is any private, group, organization, or institution that can affect as well as be affected by an comp one(a)nts actions. In a word, stakeholders have an interest in what an agent does 3.These four factorsagent, acts, results and stakeholdersare the raw real facts from which an ethical compend proceeds. Applying Ethical Theories Renowned medical ethicist William F. whitethorn refers to the method of ethical reflection as disciplinal vision. Ethics supplies a type of corrective lens, he defends, and relies heavily on the distinction between what is and what ought to be 4. These four crucial factors serve to establish what is. For what ought to be we must turn to ethical theories. These theories are the prismsthe optometrists collection of lensesthrough which we can observe reality and see the choices to make as we onslaught to direct reality towards our ethical ideals. in that respect are many, perhaps an infinity, of theories we might apply. The optics of ethics is very capacious indeed. We can be comforted in this effort, however, by the realization that the evolution of ethical valueing has resulted in four major themes. These are meta-lenses through which to go out at an ethical federal agency. genius theory emphasizes an agents duty. This theory seeks to create a good society by having people do the right things. As Immanuel Kant emphasized, there are prohibitions against taking some acts and obligations to take others.We have a prima facie or a priori duty, for example, to respect the autonomy of others fit to one principle evolving out of this theory any acts an agent might take that would invade a stakeholders privacy or right to choose for themselves should be avoided. More specifically, it is conceivable to assume members have a prima facie duty to adhere to the provisions of the ACM cipher of Ethics. But, and this is a significant point, we may not forever and a day be obliged to do so.Subsequent theorists in this deontological vain, W. D. Ross in particular 5, have held that while these duties are compelling they are not definitive. When two or more duties come into passage of arms the agent must make a reasoned choice. For example, the advantages obtained from using email may be deemed to be more main(prenominal) than the exposure to loss of privacy it brings about. These moral losses, however, should be make explicit in making a moral choice. The same principle applies, as we will see, among theories themselves. The second great(p) impost is the pursuit of happiness.Applying this theory requires that we assess the consequences of the agents actions and deter56 celestial latitude 1995/Vol. 38, No. 12 COMMUNICATIONS OF THE ACM mine how much recreation or pain, good or bad, happiness or unhappiness, benefits or costs they inflict on stakeholders. The directional principle, which originates with Bentham and Mill, is that an agent should choose an act resulting in the greatest good for the greatest number. The good society is reached fit to this theory by doing good for others.However, since what is good for the collective-at-large may not be good for a presumptuousness individual (or may violate a basic duty or right), advice emanating from this consequentialist tradition may conflict with advice deriving from other theories. A third great tradition is the pursuit of virtue. This theory focuses on meliorate the character or traits of the agent. The ancient Greeks averred that a moral person should take acts that enable and enhance the agents courage, prudence, temperance and justice. Their predecessors focused on acc umulating individual power.Might is right formed the basis of their invention of virtue. One of their successors, St. Thomas Acquinas, drew on the Pauline tradition to add the more spiritual virtues of faith, anticipate and charity to the list. And, in the industrial age, industry, honesty, and trustworthiness were added because they were necessary for commercial relationships.All of these virtueoriented guides have the effect of creating a good society by having each agent be a good person. Finally, there is the tradition of the pursuit of justice. Justice requires that every stakeholder in the system should enjoy, so far as possible, an equal opportunity to develop his or her knowledge, skills and talents, and to reach his or her potentialities. This comes from honest dealing and right action and is usually based on rules that society has made, rules that should be the same for all and applied equally.The rules are based on criteria much(prenominal) as merit, need, work or ot her agreed-upon standards. The social contract theories to which several of the authors refer have emerged as a part of this tradition. The good society according to theories of justice is achieved by doing fairly, both in the fair allocation of privileges, duties, and goods, and in the meting out of punishments. When facing a moment-of-truth, one is well advised to view the situation through each of these ethical lenses. Each provides sixth sense into the moral complexity of the issue being examined. Frequently, however, the guidance deriving from one of these theories will conflict with that of one or more of the others.This requires a moral judgment, one that shows how one theory or principle trumps another. The reasons hindquarters the choice made should be grounded in at least one moral theory and warrant accordingly. The pitting of facts against theories is a necessary and the most of the essence(predicate)aspect of deciding on an ethical issue. There are also four additi onal considerations to take into sum up Who should decide? Who should benefit? How should the decision be made? And, how can the issue be prevented from arising in the future? Who Should Decide? Presumably if you are facing a moment-of-truth you are also engaged in a decision process.Should you go it alone? Often, not. onward an agent acts he or she should take into account the answers to two questions 1) Which other stakeholders ought to participate in the making of this decision because of their knowledge, their values, or their interests? The voices of future generations should always be considered in this determination as well as the voices of contemporaries. 2) Which other stakeholders must take part in the decision and its implementation because of their institutional jobs, responsibilities or the resources they consider?As debates on the basis of a just war have concluded, a decision that does not carry legitimacy or a reasonable probability of success is unlikely to lead to a satisfactorily moral outcome. Who Should Benefit from the finding? some stakeholders may be affected by a decision. Some of these outcomes should have been considered during the application of ethical theories to the situation at fleet. Nevertheless, before enacting a choice one should assure himself or herself the benefits of the decision flow to virtuously justifiable parties and that no undue harm is done.How Should the Decision be Made and Carried Out? From a stakeholders point-of-view a decision cannot be separated from the way it is made and delivered.Whenever possible, important moral decisions should be made as the result of due process. Beyond any legal requirements, the processes by which decisions are made should be fair and they should follow established procedures when applicable. It is internal the parties who are potentially harmed by decisions, as well as those who are benefited, recognize the legitimacy of the decision-making process. This, however, is not enough. Decisions should be carried out in a gentle, moral way. During the sound process just described, some ethical principles or dictates are relegated to a secondary position.But they do not go away. A decision should be framed and fulfilled in a port which maximizes the accomplishment of all of the ethical principles identified. All decisions should be carried out with due respect, in the sense that they should deal the dignity of all stakeholders involved to the extent possible. How end the Issue be Prevented from Arising in the Future? all decision becomes a precedent in the future. A decision that resolves an acute and pressing moral issue today may not look so good in light of the passage of time. It may create worse problems than the ones it solves.Or, our moral reflection may reveal flaws in our institutions that can beperhaps, should bechanged so the ethical issue at hand does not emerge again, at least in the same degree of intensity or severity. Thus, procedures and processes should be put in place, eliminating the root causes of this issue or handling it more effectively in the future. The essential question In making this ethical decision, what sort of social transcript do we want to preserve? The last four considerations have a common thread To be ethical, a decision-maker must think beyond just the facts and theories pertinent to the current issue.One must reach beyond the present and be sure to bring in additional voices, match that ethical procedures are employed, adopt a humane style of conduct, and look to the future. Moving Ahead The articles in this issue form a rather feisty as well as a noetic basis for getting on with the task of creating a good society in our information age. The ethics of being online, using tools such as email, and infusing of information technology into our lives in areas ranging from business process reengineering to set up large-scale systems are, arguably, among the most important ethical issues of our time.As good citizens in this information age we must be able to identify the crucial moments-of-truth in which our behavior as information professionals shapes the direction our society will take. By understanding the facts of each case, move on ethical traditions for guidance, and doing this with a concern for the broader implications of our actions, we can create the kind of ethical society we want. This is the contend of our times 2. C References 1. Anderson, R. E. , Johnson, D. G. , Gotterbarn, D. and Perrolle, J. Using the new ACM jurisprudence of ethics in decision-making. Commun. ACM 36, 2 (Feb. 1993), pp 98107 2.stonemason, R. O. , Mason, F. M. , and Culnan, M. J. Ethics of Information Management. Sage, honey oil Oaks, Calif. , 1995. 3. Mason, R. O. and Mitroff, I. Challenging Strategic prep Assumptions. Wiley, New York, 1981. 4. May, W. F. The Physicians Covenant. Westminster Press, Philadelphia, 1983. 5. Ross, W. D. Moral Duties. Macmillan, London, 1969. Richard O. Mason is Carr P. Collins Professor of Management Information Sciences at the Edwin L. Cox School of Business, Southern Methodist University, Dallas, Tex. split of this article are based on material originally developed for Mason, R. , Mason, F. , and Culnan, M.Ethics of Information Management. Sage, Thousand Oaks, Calif. , 1995. Permission to make digital/hard model of part or all of this work for personal or classroom use is granted without tiptoe provided that copies are not made or distributed for receipts or commercial advantage, the copyright notice, the title of the issuance and its date appear, and notice is given that copying is by permission of ACM, Inc. To copy otherwise, to republish, to post on servers, or to redistribute to lists requires prior specific permission and/or a fee. ACM 0002-0782/95/1200 $3. 50 COMMUNICATIONS OF THE ACM December 1995/Vol. 38, No. 12 57.